Italian Pre- and Protohistory

هذا المبحث الأول من كتاب (معاني حرف السين في القرآن الكريم) الدراسة قائمة على معنى السين الذي استخلصته من حذف الحروف المقطعة في بداية السور من الكلمة  لمعرفة جذر الكلمة، كما يلي: كلمة سأل وردت في سورة  بدأت بـ الم وبحذف الألف واللام تتبقى السين وتدل على معنى الطلب، كلمة يسوق وردت في سورة قاف وبحذف القاف تتبقى السين وتعني السوق وهكذا، وتعني السين أيضًا السماء والسير وسلَّ، فكما ان الترادف موجود بين الكلمات فهو يوجد بين الحروف أيضًا لأن الحروف عددها محدود والمعاني عددها غير محدود.
S means height,something rises like secret or something you get it from another (sneak)extract,snatch,fence, appearance to the utmost degree like sky, ask,,walk,sign,sound,touch,name,message,messenger,evening, leader
S is synonymous of L.

From the valley of Adige, the massif of Monte Baldo is first rising with steep walls, and only above them the characteristic eastern terrace of Monte Baldo stretches.

In those walls, on the altitude of 773 m, already from the year 1000 on, and certainly in the 12th century, there was a hermitage and in 1530 the first church was built there. In 1898 it was rebuilt, but the biggest reconstruction started in 1975.
The church was demolished and rebuilt to the dimensions, which can be seen nowadays. The church was consecrated in 1978 and in 1988 also the Pope visited the place.

Once the place was hardly reachable. Only a narrow and exposed passage was leading to the buildings.

The Sanctuarium and the Shrine of the Corona is a place of silence and meditation, extended between heaven and earth, hidden in the heart of the Baldo rocks. Medieval documents testify that hermits linked to the Abbey of St Zeno in Verona lived in the Baldo area already around the year 1000 and that at least from the second half of the 13th century there was a monastery with a chapel dedicated to St Mary of Montebaldo. This was only accessible by a dangerous narrow path in the rock. A holy tradition dates the birth of the Shrine of Our Lady of the Corona to 1522, the year when the sculpture venerated hen was miraculously transported through angelic intervention from the island of Rhodes, when the island was invaded by the Muslim army of Suliman II. This date is however contested by the existence, in the recesses of the modern shrine, of a fourteenth century painting of the Our Lady and the Child Jesus. This was the first image venerated in the original chapel, which took its name from it. Between 1434 and 1437 St Mary of Montebaldo passed under the ownership of the Knights of St John, or of the Holy Sepulchre, present in Verona since 1362 as the Commenda di San Vitale e Sepolcro, who remained owners of the Shrine until the dissolving under the Napoleonic provision of 1806. It would seem that the group in stone of the Pietà later venerated as Our Lady of the Corona dates to this period. The statue, that is 70 centimetres high, 56 wide and 25 in depth, is made from local stone and painted. It stands on a pedestal that bears the legend “HOC OPUS FECIT FIERI LODOVICUS D CASTROBARCO D 1432”, traditionally considered proof that the statue was made and given to the Corona in 1432 by Lodovico Castelbarco, of a noble family of Rovereto. During its four centuries of operation, the Commenda radically transformed Our Lady of the Corona, turning it into a real spacious and accessible Shrine thanks to the building of a wooden access bridge in the valley (1458) and the construction of a new church measuring 18 metres by 7 over the old chapel (1490-1521).
The sixteenth century saw the creation of two sets of access steps that can still be seen: a wider one, composed of 556 steps which from the spring of Spiazzi, later called “Spring of Independence” went down to the Bridge “del Tiglio”, and a narrower one, 234 steps, cut from the rock along the original very narrow path that went from the bridge to the church.

Le ricerche condotte sul Colle Madore, nel cuore della Sicilia centro-occidentale, hanno
messo in luce resti archeologici che documentano uno dei periodi della storia antica dell’isola più interessanti per le grandi trasformazioni culturali conseguenti la colonizzazione greca. La fondazione delle nuove città e il loro rapido sviluppo innestarono in tutta l’isola, dalle coste alle vallate più interne, un irripetibile processo di cambiamenti del tradizionale tessuto indigeno contribuendo a disegnare un rinnovato assetto culturale politico ed economico che inciderà profondamente nella storia siciliana.

The Giant’s tomb of Pala ’e Sulzaga, Bonorva (SS) - The tomb of Pala ‘e Sulzaga (Bonorva, SS) has been found badly damaged: Roman Age and sub-contemporary activities had deprived its structure. Research focused on structural details and on the front plaza, which was enclosed by a single semicircular row of blocks. A single construction phase has been identified, dating to the Recent Bronze Age; the tomb was certainly in use during the same phase. At the end of the Final Bronze Age (phase 4 of nuraghe Tres Nuraghes, present conference), the plaza underwent restoration.

La présente contribution vise à préciser les aspects géographiques et chronologiques liés à l’apparition, au développement et au déclin d’un type de construction en pierre sèche localement appelée « torre ». Ces édifices monumentaux, qui présentent une forme de tour tronconique, sont élevés selon un cahier des charges architectural précis, et trouvent leur strict équivalent en Sardaigne avec les milliers de nuraghi monotorre du Bronze ancien et moyen. La publication du détail du maigre corpus des torre de Corse, ainsi que la révision des données chronologiques fournies par les fouilles et les prospections opérées ces cinquante dernières années, seront également l’occasion de souligner l’importance prise par ces monuments dans l’évolution de la construction du discours archéologique depuis les années 1960 et les travaux de Roger Grosjean.

F. RUBAT BOREL, S. ROSA, F. GIANOTTI, M. ALFIERI, Ceres (TO), loc. Airetta. Cantoira (TO), loc. Rio Combin. Groscavallo (TO), loc. Giass del Colombin. Strutture megalitiche nelle Valli di Lanzo, in «Quaderni della Soprintendenza Archeologica del Piemonte», 27, 2012, pp. 264-276 .
F. RUBAT BOREL, L. FOGLIASSO, B. PERETTO, Cuorgnè (TO). Archivio dei siti con incisioni rupestri di Luciano Gibelli, in «Quaderni della Soprintendenza Archeologica del Piemonte», 27, 2012, pp. 281-282 .
F. RUBAT BOREL, S. MARCHIARO, F. PAVIA, Pavone Canavese (TO), loc. Brich Appareglio/la Paraj Àuta. Abitato d’altura dell’età del Ferro, in «Quaderni della Soprintendenza Archeologica del Piemonte», 27, 2012, pp. 289-295

In the Porto Cesareo (Lecce, Italy) coastal area, submerged and semi-submerged archaeological evidence has been uncovered by recent preliminary surveys carried out in close collaboration with the local marine protected area (MPA): (a) a navis lapidaria wreck of the Roman imperial age; (b) various scattered and decontextualised finds; (c) a beached wreck, probably medieval; (d) some submerged built-structures that are part of the Bronze Age Scalo di Furno settlement; and (e) remains of structures (walls, buildings, burial areas). The last three pieces of evidence allow for the hypothesis of a significantly different ancient coastal landscape than that of the present and a ‘dynamic’ scenario
over the centuries.

The Sea Peoples after Three Millennia: Possibilities and Limitations of Historical Reconstruction. In: P. Fischer/T. Bürge (eds), “Sea Peoples” Up-to-Date. New Research on Transformations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13th–11th Centuries BCE. Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 35 (Vienna 2017) 23–42.

The paper deals with the database of advanced Middle Bronze Age decorated pottery (“Appenninico”), a peculiar type of ceramic that was the focus of the 1959 Puglisi’s book presenting a corpus implemented in the following years till 1995. A Roma Tre seminar was dedicated to the updating of this corpus, giving birth to a geodatabase that we hope to convert soon in a WebGis

This volume presents the 2020 exceptional discoveries of a Roman sanctuary at San Casciano dei Bagni (province of Siena). In a constant fight against water and hot mud and with the complex health protocol in place imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, during June, July and September 2020, the excavation south of the medieval pools at Bagno Grande brought to light a small part of a multi-stratified Roman sanctuary. Many traces of earlier occupation of this site were identified in the area; in particular a large wall made of regularly cut blocks, under the earliest Augustan sanctuary, is perhaps evidence of a Hellenistic structure underneath.

Initially conceived as the catalogue for the Gregorian Etruscan Museum and published a century ago, the volume by Giovanni Pinza reflects a particular intellectual development that links the proto-history of Etruria-Latium and Etruscan Orientalizing to the cultural dynamics of the entire Mediterranean basin from the Bronze Age onwards. In what would also be the first 20th century monographic study on the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, the author presents a new study of the tomb in Cerveteri in the light of both his documentary research and his field activity. He examines some of the major themes relating to the tomb, from the origins to a definition of the specific characteristics of the art and culture of the Etruscans. With inspired intuition and subjective interpretations, Pinza’s work concludes the period of 19th century studies, combining Italian palethnology with the Homeric archaeology of Helbig, and foreseeing topics and approaches that would see further developments and which would also be conditioned by ideological stances in the period between the two World Wars. A re-reading today of this pioneering work on relations between the Aegean world, the Near East and Egypt, takes into account the more recent information that has emerged concerning the Regolini-Galassi Tomb and the results from new areas of research.

Co-authored with Barbara Barbaro
I curatori hanno pregato gli autori anche a nome della casa editrice di non pubblicare i contributi online. Pertanto si presenta qui la sola prima pagina dell'articolo, comprendente l'Abstract.
ISBN 978-90-00000-00-0

Both "deposits"  of Goluzzo and Santa Marinella, although repeatedly cited in  chronological seriation's bibliography and in various bronze artifacts' typological studies, were only partially known and without a proper graphic rendering.
The complete study of all  these artifacts, including drawings and photographs, has led to the identification of some unfamiliar “objects' classes”, which, inter alia, allowed us to define a better articulation of the relationships' framework between the central Tyrrhenian Area and other cultural Areas.
A rilevant number of new elements for a better chronological  understanding of these  two complexes are also been acquired.

I due “ripostigli” di Goluzzo e di Santa Marinella, benché ripetutamente citati nella bibliografia specialistica relativa soprattutto alle seriazioni cronologiche e alle tipologie di varie classi di manufatti di bronzo, erano in realtà conosciuti soltanto in maniera parziale e senza un’adeguata resa grafica. Lo studio integrale di tutti i materiali pervenuti, corredato di disegni e immagini fotografiche, ha portato all’ individuazione di classi di oggetti poco noti - che hanno tra l'altro consentito di articolare meglio il quadro di relazioni esistenti tra l’area centrale tirrenica ed altre aree culturali nel corso del periodo preso in esame -  ed all’ acquisizione di una consistente serie di nuovi elementi utili per l’inquadramento cronologico dei due complessi.

Les deux “depôts de Goluzzo et de Santa Marinella,même si à plusieurs reprises cités dans la bibliographie spécialisée principalement dans les sériations chronologiques et dans la typologie des différentes classes d'objets en bronze, étaint en fait connus seulement en partie et surtout dépourvue d'une appropriée  restitution graphique. L'étude intégrale de tous les matériaux  conservés, accompagnée de dessins et de photographies, a conduit à l'identification de classes d'objets peu connues - ce qui a permis notamment de mieux articuler le cadre des relations entre l'Italie centrale  Tyrrhénienne et d'autres aires culturelles pendant la période examinée, et à l'acquisition d'un nombre important de nouveaux éléments utiles pour le cadre chronologique de ces deux complexes.

F. RUBAT BOREL, M. ARZARELLO, C. BUONSANTO, S. DAFFARA, San Carlo Canavese - San Francesco al Campo (TO), località Vauda. Reperti litici del Paleolitico medio, in «Quaderni della Soprintendenza Archeologica del Piemonte», 28, 2013, pp. 267-270

This paper outlines the history of prehistoric studies in the north Italian province of Varese, where some of the key pioneering work was done in the nineteenth century. Topics discussed include the lake villages (palafitte) of lake Varese, including work on the Isolino; the Golasecca culture; Varese archaeological Museum; and the journal 'Sibrium'. The roles of key figures in the history of Italian prehistoric archaeology, like Antonio Stoppani, Pompeo Castelfranco and Mario Bertolone, are assessed and contextualised.

"In this article is presented a proposal of seriation
of bronze artifacts votive groups and hoards from
Nuragic Sardinia, on the basis of statistic-combinatory
analysis, in a chronological span between
Recent Bronze Age and Early Iron Age.
The specimen includes only fully published contexts.
Results show that the frequentation of the
nuragic sanctuaries and the habit of assembling
hoards are well documented phenomena until the
latter phases of Italian Early Iron Age. The
chronological seriation proposed for nuragic contexts
is easily comparable with the Italian continental
sequence, on the basis of several typological
comparisons."

THE BRONZE AGE IN WESTERN SICILY. - Many cultures developed during bronze age in western Sicily. Sometime they were contemporary showing the presence of very interesting ethnical dynamics bringing to acculturation phenomena like in the case of Bell Beaker mainly diffused in south west regions.
During early bronze Castelluccio culture was diffused also in western Sicily, but it developed slowly towards what was called Rodì Tindari Vallelunga facies and that now we think is a process of typological as cultural change between Castelluccio and Thapsos. During this last phase we encounter the origin of some
regional differences among the same culture that will be more evident during late bronze age. We see that there are aspects more tied with a Mediterranean tradition, such as Mokarta. But we also see that there areas where it is strong a Tyrrhenian tradition and also a continental one with Ausonian affinities.

Quaderni di Archeologia del Piemonte, 2, 2018; Province di Biella e Novara: F. RUBAT BOREL, S. LEARDI, Candelo (BI), piazza Castello e via Mazzini. Strutture murarie medievali individuate nel corso dello sdoppiamento della  linea fognaria, pp. 263-266;  F. RUBAT BOREL, C. GILARDI, D. MORO, D. VARRONE, Salussola (BI), locc. Aunei Grosso e Puliaco. Strade tardoantiche, medievali e di età modernapp. 266-267. F. RUBAT BOREL, D. REDAMANTE, D. MORO,  Salussola (BI), loc. Gerbido. Fornace per mattoni postmedievale, pp. 268-269. F. RUBAT BOREL, S. MARCHIARO, E. PERENCIN, Salussola (BI), loc. Puliaco. Frequentazione delle età del Bronzo e del Ferro, pp. 269-273. F. RUBAT BOREL, P. COMBA, S.A. PASCHERO, D. VARRONE, Salussola (BI), loc. Puliaco. Struttura fortificata e abitato medievali, pp. 273-277. F. RUBAT BOREL, M. HIROSE, L. LAMANNA, M. ZAPELLONI, Castelletto sopra Ticino (NO), via Fermi. Sepoltura golasecchiana con boccale decorato a stampiglia, pp. 278-282, F. RUBAT BOREL, S. MARCHIARO, Vaprio d’Agogna (NO), loc. Cascina “Il Motto”. Urna funeraria, spada e spillone dell’età del Bronzo, pp. 287-289

During the Early Iron Age (ca. 950–720 bc) Nuragic Sardinia experienced the rise of monumental public sanctuaries. This study addresses the formation of the votive record in sanctuaries in order to explore the relationship between socio-economic control and the ritual dynamics of legitimation of authority. In Nuragic sanctuaries, large amounts of wealth were collected in the form of significant accumulations of bronze objects. The accumulation of metal objects in sanctuaries probably reflects a model of elite-controlled wealth redistribution. It is argued that the rise of sanctuaries is part of a planned ‘ritual strategy’, put in action by Nuragic elites, in order to pursue ideological legitimation to their claims for hegemony. The subject is set within a proposal of a general redefinition of the Nuragic Early Iron Age, making it possible to propose a contextualization of the local phenomenon within the contemporary western Mediterranean framework.

In Apulia, without any comprehensive analysis, we found a score of names of possible Etruscan matrix. Of these, at least a dozen are almost certain: these include Lucera, Canosa and Venosa that other scholars such as Alessio and Schulze have identified as Etruscans. In addition to these, we also found Lupatia, Blera, Vibarna (Bovino), Salapia, Caelia, Egnatia and Aika (Troia) to remain in the Daunia and Peucetia areas. Two are the characteristic results of the investigation: the fact that almost all etymologies come from gentilicia (except for Troia and Lupatia) and that these gentilicia are all from the area of Chiusi and Perugia.
This has raised the suspicion that protovillanovian/villanovian merchants, trafficking on the "adriatic corridor" (FBA - EIA: from 11th to 9th century BC), settled in Apulia, at the location indicated, and used their names as an indication of the places of destination or origin of the goods. Such use was later applied to indicate the name of the settlements.
Another level of the hypothesis, which is much more difficult to prove, is that together with the goods, there were abbreviated written labels in order to be able to function even in the absence of those carriers who knew the origin or destination of the goods by heart.

Le sempre più raffinate analisi archeometriche applicate allo studio delle produzioni ceramiche, il moltiplicarsi di scavi di abitato in cui è stato possibile individuare fornaci, scarti di produzione e altri resti di impianti artigianali, gli studi sempre più accurati sulle ceramiche trovate in alcuni grandi scavi di abitato hanno a loro volta suscitato un crescente interesse per lo studio dei processi produttivi. Da questo punto di vista, il libro di Massimo Saracino, dedicato alle produzioni di età pre- e protostorica, costituisce un ausilio didattico veramente nuovo e di grande utilità. L’autore tratta infatti, in modo comprensibile, con un ampio apparato illustrativo e con riferimenti puntuali e aggiornati, un argomento complesso e ricco di implicazioni per le finestre che apre sulla ricostruzione delle attività artigianali. Oltre a colmare una lacuna, visto che esistono alcuni manuali che hanno come oggetto di studio soprattutto le produzioni di età classica, il libro spazia dalla paletnologia all’archeometria, dall’etnoarcheologia all’archeologia sperimentale, offrendo una chiara dimostrazione di quante siano, per citare il titolo di un noto reading curato da van der Leeuw, le molte dimensioni della ceramica. Si tratta insomma di un manuale completo, ricco di informazioni nuove anche per gli studiosi; fornito di un buon apparato bibliografico che offre peraltro la possibilità, a chi sia interessato, di compiere ulteriori approfondimenti nella letteratura più specializzata.

INDICE

Prefazione

Introduzione

1. Storia degli studi
1.1. La fase storico-artistica – 1.2. La fase tipologica – 1.3. La fase contestuale

2. La ceramica nella preistoria
2.1. Le prime testimonianze: il caso del Vicino Oriente... – 2.2. ...dell’area Egea... – 2.3. ...e della penisola italiana

3. Il ciclo produttivo della ceramica
3.1. Selezione ed approvvigionamento della materia prima – 3.2. Preparazione della materia prima – 3.3. Modellazione del manufatto – 3.4. Essiccazione – 3.5. Cottura – 3.6. Trattamenti post-cottura – 3.7. L’organizzazione della produzione

4. Archeometria della ceramica
4.1. Campionamento e campionatura – 4.2. Metodi di datazione assoluta: la termoluminescenza e l’archeomagnetismo – 4.3. Analisi di caratterizzazione dei reperti ceramici

5. Prospettive della ricerca

Glossario

Riferimenti bibliografici

Referenze fotografiche

Iconographic sources indicate that textiles were used for a variety of purposes by the Etruscans, Paleovenetians, Faliscans and other inhabitants of ancient Italy but until recently little was known about what these textiles actually were like. The latest and ongoing studies of the surviving fabric remains found primarily in burial contexts are for the first time permitting not only qualitative but also quantitative assessment of the data. The paper focuses on the recently analysed textile remains from across Italy, and places them in the wider context of Italian and European pre-Roman textile production.

Nelle Marche la maggiore concentrazione di grotte archeologiche si ha nella Gola di Frasassi e della Rossa. Un gruppo
di grotte a Frasassi (Grotta della Beata Vergine, Grotta del Mezzogiorno, Caverna dei Baffoni) ha conosciuto una
frequentazione pressoché continua dal Neolitico all’Alto Medioevo, altre, come la Caverna del Carbone, il Grottone
e la Grotta del Prete e più a nord la Grotta del Grano e la Grotta delle Nottole furono utilizzate per più brevi periodi
nel corso dell’età del bronzo. La funzione cultuale è certa per alcuni materiali rinvenuti nella parte più interna della
Grotta della Beata Vergine di Frasassi, mentre di altre grotte risulta ancora incerta la funzione.
L’utilizzo sepolcrale risulta al momento solo nella Grotta della Beata Vergine di Frasassi, limitatamente all’età tardoantica
e altomedievale, anche se il rinvenimento di frammenti ossei umani nella Grotta del Grano al Furlo e nella
Grotta dei Baffoni a Frasassi potrebbe far pensare a sporadiche pratiche funerarie occasionali nella fase iniziale del
Bronzo medio.
La frequentazione delle grotte e ripari nel Paleolitico superiore è circoscritta alla Gola della Rossa e di Frasassi, a
scopo abitativo ma anche cultuale, come sembrerebbe ipotizzabile nella Sala del Fuoco alla Grotta del Fiume.
Parole chiave: grotte, archeologia, funzione abitativa, funzione cultuale, funzione funeraria.
Abstract
In the Marche region, the largest number of archaeological caves are in the Frasassi Gorge and in the Rossa Gorge.
Some caves in Frasassi (Grotta della Beata Vergine, Grotta del Mezzogiorno, Grotta dei Baffoni) have been frequented
by the Neolithic to the High Middle Age, other caves (Caverna del Carbone, Grottone, Grotta del Prete in the Frasassi
Gorge and Grotta del Grano and Grotta delle Nottole to the north) were used for shorter periods during Bronze Age.
The ritual function is certain for some materials found in the inner part of the Grotta della Beata Vergine, while the
function of other caves is still uncertain. Funerary use is possible for the Grotta della Beata Vergine, limited to the Late
Roman and Early Medieval, although the discovery of human bone fragments in the Grotta del Grano in the Furlo
Gorge and in the Grotta dei Baffoni in the Frasassi Gorge suggests sporadic funerary practices in the early Bronze Age.
In the Upper Paleolithic the human frequentation of caves and shelters is only in the Frasassi Gorge and in the Gola
della Rossa Gorge, both for housing both as a place of worship, as it appears in the Sala del Fuoco (Grotta del Fiume).
Keywords: Archaeological Caves, Living Use, Ritual Use, Funerary Use.

Riassunto / Abstract
248
I pugnali in selce e in metallo sono una classe particolare di oggetti che dall’età
del rame e soprattutto nell’età del bronzo segnano le tappe della significativa
trasformazione della struttura socio-economica delle comunità preistoriche.
Essi indicano la connotazione guerriera di una élite di individui che per scopi
offensivi e difensivi acquisiscono l’uso delle armi. Il pugnale, arma per il combattimento
a distanza ravvicinata, è anche identificativo del ruolo eminente di
taluni personaggi, simbolo di potere ed elemento di distinzione sociale.
Già i pugnali in selce di età eneolitica, per la loro lavorazione talvolta molto
accurata e per la loro collocazione nelle sepolture, sottolineano il ruolo svolto
da alcuni individui all’interno della comunità, ma anche il sorgere di manifestazioni
di ostilità e necessità difensive a livello personale e comunitario.
Il grande sviluppo della metallurgia a partire dal Bronzo Antico farà dei pugnali
armi sempre più funzionali, dalla forte valenza simbolica e votiva, presenti
soprattutto in contesti funerari o cultuali. Nel Bronzo Recente i pugnali diverranno
oggetti di ampia diffusione negli abitati e prodotti di scambio anche a
largo raggio. La loro scomparsa nel Bronzo Finale è dovuta al cambiamento
delle tecniche di combattimento, che prevedeva l’uso di spade, presenti nelle
Marche già nel Bronzo Recente, e di lance, oltre che di una diversa organizzazione
sociale e politica.
Flint and metal daggers represent a particular class of objects that - starting from
the Copper Age and mostly in the Bronze Age – mark the stages of the significant
transformation in the social and economic structure of the prehistoric communities.
These objects indicate the warrior status of an elite of men who acquire the
use of weapons for both offensive and defensive purpose. Daggers are weapons
for close-range combats and they identify the hegemonic and emerging role of
certain individuals, in addition to being both a symbol of power and an element
of social distinction. Due to their often very accurate manufacture and due to
their collocation in burials, flint daggers of the Copper Age stress the role played
by some individuals within their community as well as the rise of demonstrations
of enmity and defensive needs on both personal and community level.
The great development of metallurgy starting from the Early Bronze Age will
turn daggers into even more functional weapons having a strong symbolic and
votive value whose presence is registered mainly in funerary and religious contexts.
In the recent Bronze Age daggers became widely distributed objects among the
settlements as well as widespread artefacts in the distant areas through a complex
traffic network. Their disappearance in the Final Bronze Age is due to the change
of fighting techniques that required using both swords—which are present in
Marche already in the recent Bronze Age—and spears in addition to a different
social and political organization.