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2004, Journal of Separation Science
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2007, Journal of …
2009, Comptes Rendus Chimie
2013, Organic Geochemistry
2011, G. Abdel-Maksoud, A. R. El-Amin
Mummification is considered one of the most important in the history of ancient Egyptian civilization. The artificial mummification process started in the Fourth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom reached its peak in the New Kingdom. This review focuses on the usage of mummification materials such as Natron salt, Coniferous resin, Mastic, Myrrh, Beeswax, Bitumen, Cassia, Onions, Lichen, Henna and Gum Arabic in ancient Egypt to determine their effectiveness in the preservation of the body. For each material, the chemical formula, the history, and the role in the preservation of the body are presented. It is shown that natron salt was the most important material to desiccate a corpse, and that the vegetable materials mentioned above have anti-bacterial properties that protected the body from microbial attack.
2018, Journal of Archaeological Science
Interdisciplinary scientific investigations utilising chemical analysis, shotgun metagenomics, textile analysis and radiocarbon dating have been applied to the study of an intact prehistoric Egyptian mummy, allowing insights into when this individual lived and died, and the funerary treatments employed in the preparation of the body. Here we present the first evidence for an extant prehistoric mummy that has undergone treatment with notably similar formative complex 'balms' that would later constitute the classic embalming recipes employed at the height of pharaonic mummification some 2500 years later. Making the informed assumption that the provenance of the Turin body was Gebelein, Qena or Luxor (Thebes), the findings offer the first indication that this type of funerary recipe was likely to have been employed over a wider geographical area at a time when the concept of a pan-Egyptian identity was supposedly still developing.
2018, Analyst
2014, PLoS ONE
2013, Archaeometry
This chapter deals with the role of mummification and mummies in Egyptian religion. Mummies in terms of the deceased and his or her cult are discussed, together with mummified animals that were given as votive offerings to divinities, particularly from the Late Period until the advent of Christianity.
Two ancient Egyptian child mummies at the University of Tartu Art Museum (Estonia) were, according to museum records, brought to Estonia by the young Baltic-German scholar Otto Friedrich von Richter, who had travelled in Egypt during the early 19th century. Although some studies of the mummies were conducted, a thorough investigation has never been made. Thus, an interdisciplinary team of experts studied the remains using the most recent analytical methods in order to provide an exhaustive analysis of the remains. The bodies were submitted for osteological and archaeothanatological study, radiological investigation, AMS radiocarbon dating, chemical and textile analyses, 3D modelling, entomological as well as aDNA investigation. Here we synthesize the results of one of the most extensive multidisciplinary analyses of ancient Egyptian child mummies, adding significantly to our knowledge of such examples of ancient funerary practices.
2015, PloS one
The mummies of Kha and his wife Merit were found intact in an undisturbed tomb in western Thebes near the ancient workers' village of Deir el-Medina. Previous MDCT (this abbreviation needs spelling out) investigations showed that the bodies of Kha and Merit did not undergo classical royal 18th Dynasty artificial mummification, which included removal of the internal organs. It was, therefore, concluded that the retention of the viscera in the body, combined with an absence of canopic jars in the burial chamber, meant the couple underwent a short and shoddy funerary procedure, despite their relative wealth at death. Nevertheless, all internal organs - brain, ocular bulbs/ocular nerves, thoracic and abdominal organs - showed a very good state of preservation, which contradicts the previous interpretation above. In order to better understand the type of mummification used to embalm these bodies, both wrapped mummies were reinvestigated using new generation X-ray imaging and chemical...
This study provides chemical confirmation for the use of resinous plant exudates in mortuary contexts in Roman Britain. The presence of European Pinaceae (conifer) resins, Pistacia spp. (mastic/terebinth) resins from the Mediterranean/Levant and Boswellia spp. (frankincense) gum-resins from southern Arabia/eastern Africa were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In addition, traces of a balsamic resin, probably Liquidambar orientalis, were recovered. Theoretical consideration of this imported rite indicates the multiplicity of roles played by resins/gum-resins as part of Roman period mortuary practices. On a practical level, they acted as temporary preservatives and masked the odour of decay. As social signifiers, they appear to have denoted the status of the deceased while their sensory impact promoted remembrance and facilitated the final rite of passage to the afterlife. This thesis provides new insights into the treatment of the dead in Roman Britain and establishes fresh links between this remote province and the remainder of the Empire. It is hoped that speculation about the meaning, associations and origins of this rite will serve to promote debate and further research into the use of natural plant exudates in the mortuary sphere.
2015, Plos one
The mummies of Kha and his wife Merit were found intact in an undisturbed tomb in western Thebes near the ancient workers’ village of Deir el-Medina. Previous MDCT (this abbreviation needs spelling out) investigations showed that the bodies of Kha and Merit did not undergo classical royal 18th Dynasty artificial mummification, which included removal of the internal organs. It was, therefore, concluded that the retention of the viscera in the body, combined with an absence of canopic jars in the burial chamber, meant the couple underwent a short and shoddy funerary procedure, despite their relative wealth at death. Nevertheless, all internal organs - brain, ocular bulbs/ocular nerves, thoracic and abdominal organs - showed a very good state of preservation, which contradicts the previous interpretation above. In order to better understand the type of mummification used to embalm these bodies, both wrapped mummies were reinvestigated using new generation X-ray imaging and chemical microanalyses Here we provide evidence that both individuals underwent a relatively high quality of mummification, fundamentally contradicting previous understanding. Elucidated “recipes”, whose components had anti-bacterial and anti-insecticidal properties, were used to treat their bodies. The time and effort undoubtedly employed to embalm both Kha and Merit and the use of imported costly resins, notably Pistacia, do not support the previously held view that the two individuals were poorly mummified. Despite a lack of evisceration, the approach clearly allowed their in situ preservation as well as affording a fairly successful mummification.
scoaladoctorala.valahia.ro
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
Chemical analysis of ancient residues of pharmaceutical or cosmetic preparations such as balms or ointments is made problematic by the high complexity of these mixtures, composed of organic and inorganic materials. Consequently, a multi-analytical approach and special caution in the interpretation of the results are necessary. In order to contribute to the improvement of analytical strategies for the characterization of complex residues and to reconstruct ancient medical practices, a replica of a pharmaceutical formulation of the seventeenth century was prepared in the laboratory according to a historically documented recipe. In a round robin exercise, a portion of the preparation was analysed as a blind sample by 11 laboratories using various analytical techniques. These included spectroscopic, chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods. None of the laboratories was able to completely reconstruct the complex formulation, but each of them gave partial positive results. The round robin exercise has demonstrated that the application of a multi-analytical approach can permit a complete and reliable reconstruction of the composition. Finally, on the basis of the results, an analytical protocol for the study of residues of ancient medical and pharmaceutical preparations has been outlined.
2011, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
2017, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
During salvage excavations carried out in 2013 on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, a seemingly isolated clay coffin with anthropoid lid was uncovered on the lower east slope of Tel Shadud in the Jezreel Valley (van den Brink et al., 2016). The coffin and associated funerary gifts bear strong resemblance to comparable specimens known foremost from Deir el-Balah in the Gaza strip and Bet She'an in the Jordan Valley. This new find should be placed within the context of the Egyptian New Kingdom colonization process of the region during the Late Bronze Age II and succeeding Iron Age I (van den Brink et al., In press). The coffin was systematically sampled for absorbed organic compounds along its profile. The results of the residue analysis reveals a particular burial aspect associated with pre-burial treatment of the coffin.
2018
Resinous materials are considered the most important embalming agent, which help in the preservation of ancient Egyptians bodies over time. They differ in type and amount from one mummy to another based on the period, embalmer and the social position of the deceased. With the aim of evaluating the role of resinous materials in the preservation of the wrapping textiles of mummies in the present study, three wrapping textile fragments (Anc. 1, Anc. 2 and Anc. 3) were collected from three mummies dating back to the ancient Egyptian Late Period (525-343 BC). These fragments differ in their amounts of adherent resin. The three fragments were soaked in a mixture of dichloromethane and methanol (DCM: MeOH, 1:1 v/v) in order to extract resinous materials from the fibers of the linen textiles. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of the extracts proved that the Anc. 2 and Anc. 3 samples included resinous materials; while, the Anc. 1 sample did not contain any adherent resinous materials. Linen fibers from the three tested fragments were investigated by stereomicroscope, microbiological investigation, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and FTIR. The results showed that resinous materials have an important role in protecting the linen wrappings from microbial damage. They also preserved the fibers' morphological structure from deterioration caused by weathering. The FTIR results proved increasing oxidation of the Anc. 1 sample and the decreasing of its crystallinity index more than the other samples as a result of its direct contact with environmental deterioration factors.
2015, Journal of Archaeological Science
2005, Mass Spectrometry Reviews
2010, Advances in Egyptology 1: 58–80.
The unwrapping of an Egyptian mummy attributed to Namenkhet Amun, a priest of the Amon temple (Karnak), has revealed the presence of several insect remains within the wrappings as well as in the abdomen. The study of this specific thanatophilous entomofauna, previously defined as Funerary-Archaeoentomology (HUCHET, 1996), provide precious information as to the different postmortem stages; including duration and processes of the mummy’s embalming. Key-words: Funerary-Archaeoentomology, mummification, Coleoptera, Cleridae, Necrobia, Dermestidae, Anthrenus, Attagenus, Diptera, Calliphoridae, Chrysomya. Résumé : Le débandelettage de la momie égyptienne de Namenkhet Amun, prêtre du temple d’Amon (Karnak) a pu mettre en évidence la présence de restes d’insectes, tant sur les bandelettes qu'à l'intérieur de l'abdomen. L’étude de cette entomofaune thanatophile spécifique, précédemment définie sous le terme d’Archéoentomologie funéraire (HUCHET, 1996), est à même de fournir de précieux renseignements quant aux différentes étapes postmortem, dont la durée et les processus liés à l'embaumement de la momie. Mots-clés : Archéoentomologie funéraire, momification, Coleoptera, Cleridae, Necrobia, Dermestidae, Anthrenus, Attagenus, Diptera, Calliphoridae, Chrysomya.
2013, The Journal of Supercritical Fluids
2015, Journal of Planar Chromatography – Modern TLC
2008
The analysis titled: "Shep-en-min: Report of findings from the CT scan of Vassar College CC79.001" is a report on file at the Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center at Vassar College. It represents the results of a CT scan reconnaissance of the mummy known as Shep-en-min (Ptolemaic Period) from Akhmim. The scan itself was undertaken April 8, 2008 by the Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium with the kind permission of the mummy's owning institution, Vassar College. Health Quest's Vassar College Medical Center in Poughkeepsie New York graciously provided the scanning facilities. The report includes substantial comparisons to the mummy of Shep-en-min's father Pahat whose mummy (Berkshire Museum 1903.4.77) was scanned separately by the Consortium in Pittsfield Massachusetts in 2007. This pair of mummies furnishes valuable information about funerary preparation at Akhmim, Egypt in the late 3rd century BC.
Abstract: Chemical analyses of ancient Pistacia resins found in pharaonic contexts have so far failed to go beyond the genus level, to reach the species level. This failure hinders the identification of the precise identity of the Pistacia species brought during this period to the Nile Valley, and the subsequent historical and economic conclusions which would result from such exact identifications particularly in relation to foreign trade. The general purpose of the present study is to synthesize the current state of research so as to stimulate the future solving of this problem.
2016, PLos One
Abstract Queen Nefertari, the favourite Royal Consort of Pharaoh Ramses II (Ancient Egypt, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty c. 1250 BC) is famous for her beautifully decorated tomb in the Valley of the Queens. Her burial was plundered in ancient times yet still many objects were found broken in the debris when the tomb was excavated. Amongst the found objects was a pair of mummified legs. They came to the Egyptian Museum in Turin and are henceforth regarded as the remains of this famous Queen, although they were never scientifically investigated. The following multidisciplinary investigation is the first ever performed on those remains. The results (radiocarbon dating, anthropology, paleopathology, genetics, chemistry and Egyptology) all strongly speak in favour of an identification of the remains as Nefertari’s, although different explanations—albeit less likely—are considered and discussed. The legs probably belong to a lady, a fully adult individual, of about 40 years of age. The materials used for embalming are consistent with Ramesside mummification traditions and indeed all objects within the tomb robustly support the burial as of Queen Nefertari.
2011, Yearbook of Mummy Studies 2011 (1): 37-44
Mummification was abolished in the seventh century AD. After that date, mummies began to capture the collective imagination, creating a mysterious fascination that still continues today. From the beginning, the radiological study of Egyptian mummies allowed the collection of medical, as well as anthropological and archaeological, evidence. Shortly after the discovery of X-rays in 1895, Petrie performed one of the first radiological studies of an Egyptian mummy. By the end of the 1970s, computed tomography (CT) scanning permitted more in-depth studies to be carried out. From CT images it is possible to obtain a three-dimensional reconstruction of the mummy which provides important new information, also thanks to virtual endoscopic technique known as 'fly-through'. Moreover, starting from CT data and using graphic software, an image of the face of the mummified individual at the time of death can now be reconstructed. The history of imaging, from the simplest to the most sophisticated technique, allows the appreciation of the importance of radiological studies of Egyptian mummies.
2018, Crystallography Reports
2013, International Conference: Advances in Functional Textiles
The nanocoating were synthesised and deposited onto the PLA substrate previously prepared by means of a bipolar pulsed DC power supply (Advanced Energy Plus 5k Pinnacle DC pulsed) at room temperature. A 100% PLA fabric with a weight of 182 g m -2 (yarn count of 19.67 tex) was used. The photo-catalytic efficacy of the nanocoated PLA fibre samples at different proportions (O_2/(O_2+Ar)) was tested for photo-degradation of methylene blue (MB) (Co = 1 mg L-1). The nanocoated fibres with TiO2, present a significant reduction in the absorption spectrums. The efficiency of photo-degradation was improved from 68.67% to 91.45%. The fibres without nanocoating showed no photocatalytic activity and that the crystalline structure is one of the factors to determine the self-cleaning property of nanocoated PLA fibers. In relation to photo-catalysis of MB after repeated washings, there is a trend on the possible decrease after 5 washes. The photocatalytic yield of the sample C lowers from 91.44 % without any washing to 90.05 % (1 wash), 89.9 % (5 washes), 76.61 % (10 washes), (68.3 % (15 washes) and 45% (20 washes), which mean that the sample C considerably reduces its photocatalytic property after 20 washes. Consequently, their photocatalytic activity decreases considerably and in addition, the water from the washings found to contain nanoparticles resulted from desorption of nanocoating of fibres, which generates an effluent with difficult treatment.
Sacred Ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) were widespread in Egypt until the eighteenth century. Today the species is extinct in modern Egypt but millions of mummified specimens are scattered geographically in dedicated Ibis burial sites throughout the country. Ibises were regarded as physical manifestations of the god Thoth and worshiped by the ancient Egyptians. A small number of Sacred Ibis were chosen as‘sacred animals’, based on physical markings, and were reared for the temples. However, the majority of the mummified Sacred Ibis were‘votive animals’that were given as offerings to the deities by pilgrims, and then buried in catacombs associated with the temple. Their supply became an industry that is thought to have flourished from the Late Period, well into the Roman Period (c. 664 BC to AD 350). Dating of the Sacred Ibis mummies, as well as other mummified animal specimens, has been based on archaeological evidence such as the age of catacombs, the design of enclosures and the shape of the mummy containers (pottery jars, wooden chests or stone boxes). Here we present the first ages of a selection of Sacred Ibis mummies using 14C methods in order to establish how closely they match the archaeological chronology. Dates are reported from museum samples provenience from Saqqara, Roda and Thebes. Our 14C radiocarbon results date the Ibis mummies between c. 450 and 250 cal BC and represent a short period of time. Those dates are falling from the Late Period to the Ptolemaic Period at maximum. Surprisingly, none of the samples were dated to the Roman era.
The partially mummified remains of a high-status female (ca. 1700 BP, Thessaloniki, Greece) were found inside a Roman-type marble sarcophagus containing a lead coffin. The individual was positioned on a wooden pallet, wrapped in bandages, and covered with a gold-embroidered purple silk cloth. Besides the clothes, remnants of soft tissue as well as the individual's original hair style and eyebrows were exceptionally well preserved. In addition to the macroscopic examination, microscopic and biochemical analyses were undertaken. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were applied to examine the tissue preservation and probable mechanisms of mummification. The presence of chemical components, such as sesquiterpenes, triterpenoids, and diterpenoids, originating from coniferous and pistacia resins, myrrh, and other spices, verify ancient information on preparation methods of the dead in Greek and Roman times. These chemical components are thought to have played a prominent role in the mummification mechanism in this particular case. The potential effect of the lead coffin in the mummification process was also examined. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis failed to detect lead penetration into the tissues, suggesting that the coffin played a limited role in the preservation of soft tissue.
2008, … of Chromatography A
A combination of gas chromatographic (GC) and mass spectrometric (MS) techniques, including direct exposure-MS (DE-MS), high-temperature GCMS (HTGCMS) and GCMS of neutral and acid fractions, was employed to study the composition and recognise origin of the ...
2017, Int J Exp Spectroscopic Tech (International Journal of Experimental Spectroscopic Techniques
The study was aimed at investigating, by FT-IR spectroscopy, residues in some whole arcaich and hellenistic vases classified as containers for cosmetics. The results highlighted dissimilar composition of the residues for containers different in shape and provenance. Lipids, vegetable resins, and proteinaceous compound were identified. Also some inorganic products (calcite and clay minerals) were found as intended ingredients of the cosmetic preparation.
This study gives an account of the organic components (binders and coatings) found in the polychromy of some fragmented architectural reliefs from the Palace of Apries in Memphis, Egypt (26th Dynasty, ca. 589‑568 BCE). A column capital and five relief fragments from the collections of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen were chosen for examination, selected because of their well‑preserved polychromy. Samples from the fragments were first investigated using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to screen for the presence of organic materials and to identify the chemical family to which these materials belong (proteinaceous, polysaccharides or lipid). Only the samples showing the potential presence of organic binder residues were further investigated using gas chromatog‑ raphy with mass spectrometry detection (GC–MS) targeting the analysis towards the detection and identification of compounds belonging to the chemical families identified by FTIR. The detection of polysaccharides in the paint layers on the capital and on two of the fragments indicates the use of plant gums as binding media. The interpretation of the sugar profiles was not straightforward so botanical classification was only possible for one fragment where the results of analysis seem to point to gum arabic. The sample from the same fragment was found to contain animal glue and a second protein material (possibly egg). While the presence of animal glue is probably ascribable to the binder used for the ground layer, the second protein indicates that either the paint layer was bound in a mixture of different binding materials or that the paint layer, bound in a plant gum, was then coated with a proteinaceous material. The surface of two of the investigated samples was partially covered by translucent waxy materials that were identified as a synthetic wax (applied during old conservation treatments) and as beeswax, respectively. It is possible that the beeswax is of ancient origin, selectively applied on yellow areas in order to create a certain glossiness or highlight specific elements.
2013
2013, Scientific Reports
2013, Archeosciences Revue D Archeometrie
2008, La Radiologia Medica 113(5): 615-26
A few centuries after the practice of mummification was finally abolished in the seventh century A.D., mummies began to capture the collective imagination, exerting a mysterious fascination that continues to this day. From the beginning, the radiological study of Egyptian mummies permitted the collection not only of medical data but also of anthropological and archaeological evidence. The first radiological study of an Egyptian mummy was performed by Flinders Petrie shortly after the discovery of X-rays in 1895, and since then, radiology has never stopped investigating these special patients. By the end of the 1970s, computed tomography (CT) scanning permitted more in-depth studies to be carried out without requiring the mummies to be removed from their cartonnage. CT images can be used to obtain a three-dimensional reconstruction of the mummy that provides important new information, in part thanks to the virtual endoscopy technique known as "fly through". Moreover, starting from CT data and using sophisticated graphics software, one can reconstruct an image of the face of the mummified individual at the time of his or her death. The history of imaging, from its origins until now, from the simplest to the most sophisticated technique, allows us to appreciate why these studies have been, and still are, fundamental in the study of Egyptian mummies.
in: The Heritage of Egypt Magazine 5, Cairo: Al-Hadara Publishing 2009, 33–39. The entire volume of The Heritage of Egypt Magazine 5, can be consuted online at http://www.egyptologyforum.org/THOE/Heritage_of_Egypt_5_English.pdf