Ancient Astronomy

Freeth, T. et al. 2021

Ὁ ΜΗΧΑΝΙΣΜΟΣ ΤΗΣ ΑΝΤΙΚΥΘΗΡΑΣ.

El Mecanismo de Antikythera, una antigua calculadora astronómica griega, ha desafiado a los investigadores desde su descubrimiento en 1901. Ahora dividido en 82 fragmentos, sólo sobrevive un tercio del original, incluidas 30 ruedas dentadas de bronce corroídas. La tomografía computarizada de rayos X Microfocus (CT de rayos X) en 2005 decodificó la estructura de la parte trasera de la máquina, pero la parte delantera permaneció en gran medida sin resolver. La tomografía computarizada de rayos X también reveló inscripciones que describen los movimientos del Sol, la Luna y los cinco planetas conocidos en la antigüedad y cómo se mostraban en el frente como un antiguo Cosmos griego. Las inscripciones que especifican períodos planetarios complejos obligaron a nuevas ideas sobre la mecanización de este Cosmos, pero ninguna reconstrucción anterior se ha acercado a igualar los datos. Nuestros descubrimientos conducen a un nuevo modelo, que satisface y explica la evidencia. Resolver este complejo rompecabezas en 3D revela una creación genial que combina ciclos de la astronomía babilónica, matemáticas de la Academia de Platón y teorías astronómicas griegas antiguas.

*Las inscripciones de este mecanismo están escritos en dialecto corintio-siracusano.

Joachim Friedrich Quack, Heidelberg University, Institute for Egyptology
Año 2019

Los cinco planetas visibles ciertamente están atestiguados en fuentes egipcias de alrededor del año 2000 a. C. Los tres exteriores están conectados religiosamente con el dios Horus con cabeza de halcón, Venus con su padre Osiris y Mercurio con Seth, el hermano y asesino de Osiris. Los testimonios claros de los planetas se limitan en gran medida a programas de decoración que cubren todo el cielo nocturno. Hay una serie de pasajes en textos religiosos donde se pueden mencionar planetas, pero muchos de ellos son inciertos porque los nombres dados a los planetas en la mayoría de ellos no son lo suficientemente específicos como para excluir otras interpretaciones. Es posible que haya habido algunos tratados que ofrecieran una interpretación religiosa más detallada de los planetas y su comportamiento, pero están mal conservados y apenas son comprensibles en los detalles. En el Período Tardío, probablemente bajo la influencia mesopotámica, la secuencia de los planetas así como sus asociaciones religiosas pudieron cambiar; al menos una fuente vincula a Saturno con el dios Sol, Marte con Míysis, Mercurio con Thot, Venus con Horus, hijo de Isis, y Júpiter con Amón, ordenando los planetas con los considerados negativos en astrología en primer lugar, separados de los positivos por el Mercurio vacilante. Los monumentos tardíos que representan el zodíaco sitúan los planetas en posiciones que se consideran importantes en astrología, especialmente las casas o el lugar de máximo poder (hypsoma; es decir, "exaltación"). Probablemente bajo influencia babilónica, en el Período Grecorromano surgieron modelos matemáticos para calcular las posiciones y fases de los planetas. Estos se utilizaban para calcular los horóscopos, de los cuales están atestiguados algunos en egipcio demótico. Hay también tratados astrológicos (la mayoría aún inéditos) en lengua egipcia que indican la importancia de los planetas para las predicciones, especialmente para el destino de los individuos nacidos bajo una determinada constelación, pero también para acontecimientos importantes para el rey y el país en general; también podrían ser pertinentes para las empresas iniciadas en una fecha determinada. Hay cierta recepción de secuencias de planetas, nombres y asociaciones religiosas supuestas o realmente específicas de Egipto en fuentes griegas.

Multiplication of the consecutive numbers 1 to 6 equals 720 and this, applied, to the equal perimeter model, numerically scaled it up to the cosmic size of the Earth and Moon in miles. The Quranic formula, to instead multiply the numbers 3 to 8 and generate 20160, doubled the cosmic model's 10080 and hence the whole geometry was doubled in scale. The further addition of the consecutive numbers 3 to 8, further signalled 33 years, pointing to the equal area model of the Solar Hero and to the Moon's nodal period because, 33 divided by 18.618 equals √ = 1.778 and the area function squares that. This equality of a circle's perimeter and a circle's area to the same square can then be drawn to unite the cosmic model of Earth and Moon's size, to the relationship of the Solar Hero period of 33 years, as the square, to a circle of radius 18.618 years, as appears quite clearly in the plan of Islam's Dome of the Rock 1 .

This essay explores the role that GC II 10 plays in the context of the treatise as a whole. It argues that while the rest of the treatise, up to and including GC II 9, explains generation and perishing by means of material and formal causes, GC II 10 provides the efficient and final causes, and thus brings the project announced at the outset of GC to completion. The essay analyses the arguments for the efficient cause of generation and corruption (identified with the sun’s annual course along the ecliptic) and its final cause (identified with a universal desire for the highest kind of being). For Aristotle, the best approximation to the being of imperishable substance which the sublunary sphere permits, given the nature of its constituents, is perpetual reproduction (for living things) and an endless cycle of reciprocal change (for elements). Finally, the essay illustrates how Aristotle’s fourfold scheme of causal explanations practically applies to generation and perishing in view of what Aristotle claims elsewhere about the unmoved mover and the gradation of being.

https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/ACME/article/view/21292
Della produzione didascalica di argomento astronomico dell'età ellenistica la tradizione manoscritta ci ha consegnato soltanto i Fenomeni di Arato, poema che sin da subito ha goduto di un vasto successo, testimoniato da riscritture, commenti e traduzioni. Poco sappiamo della poesia astronomica non aratea, di cui rimangono sparute testimonianze ed esempi frammentari, tra cui spiccano i cinque esametri sulla luna di Egesianatte (SH 466-467). Il presente contributo intende valutare la posizione di Egesianatte all'interno della poesia didascalica di argomento astronomico, prendendo in considerazione le testimonianze sulla sua produzione astronomica e analizzando tanto il contesto di citazione dei versi, quanto il testo stesso dei frammenti.

The Spartan King Agesilaus II left his throne in Sparta and went out to work as a mercenary in Egypt after he faced many military clashes (396-362B.C.) that forced him to search for a source of livelihood outside his homeland, to benefit from that livelihood as part of the power of Sparta. Agesilaus did not find better than Egypt (after its independence from Persian Empire in 404B.C.) which shared the hostility of the Persians and gathered mercenary soldiers for profitable wages. In Egypt, the mercenary commander Agesilaus with a thousand of his soldiers did his job to the fullest and was able to get the hoped-for price in 360B.C. from the Egyptian King Nectanebo II (the last king of the pharaohs). Hence the importance of the subject which is the embodiment of King Agesilaus of the meaning of sacrifice for the sake of the homeland, and that is by displaying the struggle of that king and deducing the extent to which Spartans benefited from that sacrifice. This study begins by observing the circumstances that prepared that king to abandon his position and seek as a mercenary through by First: "The Spartan king in Sparta and Asia Minor". Then display the National Mission of Agesilaus in Egypt by Second: "Mercenary Agesilaus in Egypt".

The phases of an E-Group in San Bartolo have painted and incised elements that date to between 300 and 200 BCE. Among these is what seems to be a  date, 7 Manik, which is peculiar in that the day glyph is a deer head instead of the typical Manik sign. I propose that the glyph is intentionally conflating a tzolk'in day with a ja'ab day because the building is emphasizing the equinoxes and because on such dates occur ja'ab dates "Seating of either the month Keej (Deer) and the month Sip (Deer spirit protector)" on March 21 and September 22--in the correlation proposed by the author since 2013.

La arqueoastronomía y la etnoastronomía, ambas como pilares de la astronomía cultural, aportan innovadoras interpretaciones al conocimiento de las sociedades antiguas. Para lograrlo, realizan una escrupulosa observación del cielo y un exhaustivo análisis arqueológico, histórico y documental. El lector encontrará en este libro una aproximación general de lo que fue la astronomía ancestral en el territorio que hoy ocupa la nación mexicana. Es un libro único en su género de interés para especialistas y el público en general.

Eski Yunan edebiyatındaki yazılı ilk eser olan Homerosçu mısralardan itibaren belirli bir “yeryüzü” (gē) tasavvuru karşımıza çıkar. Gerek Ilias’taki “Gemiler Kataloğu” gerek Odysseia’daki Akdeniz’in sınırlarını hikâye eden seyahatler bu fikrin mitlerle iç içe geçmiş görünümlerini sunar. Erken dönemde bütünüyle tekinsiz olduğu düşünülen yeryüzünün hesaplayıcı bir akılla tanımlanması ve bir çerçeveye oturtulması Eski Yunan müktebesatının –matematik, geometri, astronomi, coğrafya ve tarih gibi– birbiriyle yakın temastaki farklı disiplinleri sayesinde peyderpey gerçekleşir. Özellikle Yunan Klasik Çağı’ndaki diğer çabaların sağladığı birikim, Hellenistik Ptolemaios hanedanının himayesinde ivme kazanan çalışmalarla tam anlamıyla “meskûn [yeryüzü]”nün (oikoumenē) tanımlanması problemine odaklanarak ete kemiğe bürünür. MÖ 3. yüzyılda yaşamış bir hezarfen olan Eratosthenes’in çalışmaları, bu bilimin kendi adı (geōgraphia) başta olmak üzere coğrafyanın belli başlı mefhumlaştırmalarının oluşmasında önemli bir rol oynar. Eseri büyük ölçüde fragmanlar halinde günümüze kalmış olmasına rağmen, Eratosthenes’in “yedi iklim” (hepta klimata) gibi kendisinden sonraki bilim dünyasını derinden etkileyen sistemleştirmeleri de bu çerçevede sayılabilir. Eratosthenes coğrafyanın müesses bir bilim olarak ortaya çıkmasının bir başlangıcıyken, asırlar sonraki bir halefi olarak MS 2. yüzyıl alimi Ptolemaios’un eserleri, gerek Eratosthenes’e yönelik sağlam eleştirileri gerek belli başlı sistematik ilkeleri yerli yerine oturtmasıyla müessesleşmenin tamamlayıcı son noktasını oluşturuyor. Meskûn yeryüzünün dakik bir tanımlaması aynı zamanda matematik hesabın kesinleştirdiği bir astronomik gökyüzüyle birlikte anlam kazanıyor. Bu sürecin sunduğu manzara belirli mefhumlaştırmaların coğrafyanın müessesleşmesinde oynadığı rol kadar, insanın yeryüzüne hâkim olma arzusunun neticesi olan kartografik resmin hodolojik mekan fikri gibi kimi ayrıntılarını da anlaşılır kılıyor. Yeryüzüyle kendisini kuşatan kosmos arasında kurulan dakik ilişki sayesinde insanın arzuladığı bu hakimiyet de zamanla irtifa kazanıyor. Müessesleşme müstakilleşmeyi, müstakilleşme de astronomi gibi yoldaşlardan zaman içinde ayrılığı beraberinde getiriyor. Dolayısıyla coğrafyanın müessesleşmesinin belli başlı mefhumlaştırmalar ve bunların komşu bilimlerle ilişkileri çerçevesinde değerlendirilmesi gerekiyor. Bu tebliğde yukarıdaki istikamette bir tahlil yapmaya gayret edeceğim.

A certain conception of the “earth” (gē) emerges from the Homeric verses, the first written works in ancient Greek literature. Both the “Catalogue of Ships” in Iliad and the travels in Odyssey describe the borders of the Mediterranean, presenting views of this notion intertwined with myth. The definition and framing by a calculating mind of the earth, which was thought to be purely uncanny in the early period, takes place gradually, due to the variety of disciplines of Ancient Greek acquired knowledge – mathematics, geometry, astronomy, geography and history, etc. – in close contact with one another. The accumulation of other efforts, especially in the Greek Classical Age, is embodied in work that gained momentum under the auspices of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty and focused on the problem of defining the "inhabited [earth]" (oikoumenē). The work of Eratosthenes, a polymath who lived in the 3rd century BC, plays an important role in the formation of certain notions of geography, especially its name (geōgraphia). Although his work has survived to a large extent in fragments, Eratosthenes’ systematizations, such as the “seven climates” (hepta klimata), which subsequently affected the scientific world profoundly, may also be included within this framework. While Eratosthenes marks the initial emergence of geography as an established science, the works by the 2nd century AD scholar Ptolemy centuries later, constitutes the complementary end point of the institutionalization of geography, both by virtue of his solid criticisms of Eratosthenes and the establishment of certain systematic principles. A precise description of the inhabited earth accords with an astronomical sky made precise by mathematical calculation also. The landscape presented by means of this process makes understandable certain details, such as the idea of hodological space in pictorial cartography, a result of the human desire to dominate the earth, as well as the role that certain notions play in the institutionalization of geography. Thanks to the precise relationship established between the earth and the cosmos that surrounds him, man’s desire for this domination also gains altitude over time. Institutionalization brings detachment, and detachment brings separation from old comrades like astronomy. Therefore, the institutionalization of geography should be evaluated within the framework of certain notions and their relations with neighboring sciences. In this paper, I will try to provide an analysis informed by these concerns.

We present an iconographical study of the largely unpublished pictorial cycle of the History of Astronomy in the roman Palazzo Patrizi-Montoro, dated about 1700. The work is unprecedented in its range and scopes and constitutes the decoration of the hitherto unknown observatory of the artists- astronomers Mariano and Francesco Felice Patrizi, active during the pontificate of Innocens XII and Clemens XI. The sequence of eighteen
large-format paintings, complemented by four single herms carrying astronomical attributes, is presently preserved in the original Atelier-Specola of the attic of the building and in the second floor where some canvases have been moved, with the exception of a painting (recovered on an old photographic plate) and a herm, that appear to be missing. A large
celestial planisphere painted on a ceiling of the attic and some astronomical instruments are also surviving. The cycle features 85 historical episodes since the first century BC to the XVII century AD, some explained with a short textual description, but the majority associated only to a year, often imprecise or plainly wrong. We propose identifications for
a number of antiquarian architectural settings and a general discussion of the iconographic themes represented. Furthermore, we show some interesting visual evidences of an influence by the astronomer and proto archeologist Francesco Bianchini, at the time superintendent of the Roman Antiquities for Clement XI.

En esta primera edición de la revista AstrodidaXis, se compilan resúmenes de las
conferencias realizadas en el marco del I Workshop Sobre Enseñanza De La
Astronomía “Desde Nuestra Tierra Al Espacio”, Evento que se consolido como un
encuentro académico de experiencias en la enseñanza de la astronomía, enmarcado
en la IV semana del planeta Tierra organizada por la Universidad Pedagógica y
Tecnológica de Colombia entre los días 19 al 23 de abril del 2021, el mismo fue la
actividad final de dicha semana el día 23 de abril a la 13:30 horas Colombia (11:30 am
Arizona) (3:30 pm Brasil, Argentina) y hasta las 17:00 h Colombia. El desarrollo del
evento se dio por Zoom con trasmisión a YouTube, las preguntas, opiniones y
percepciones fueron tomados desde el chat e informados por el equipo de
AstrodidaXis al zoom.
El propósito del evento fue reconocer experiencias en enseñanza, divulgación y
culturización en astronomía, en diferentes contextos del continente americano, a fin
de que se pueda movilizar el desarrollo operativo de la red AstrodidaXis y articular los
esfuerzos en el campo, desde regiones como la Orinoquía y los campos boyacenses
en Colombia.
Nuestro público objetivo fueron docentes de diferentes niveles de formación,
estudiantes de educación secundaria, pregrado y posgrado, astrónomos, físicos y
divulgadores científicos.
Se espera así relatar las experiencias de los participantes, como insumo de reflexión
y propuesta para los participantes de la red AstrodidaXis en la proyección de los
nuevos insumos educativos y didácticos, para la enseñanza de la astronomía en
nuestros territorios

The apprehension of Time and Space among the Celts: the study of the orientations of sanctuaries and sacred spaces.

Study of the orientations of the sanctuaries in Gaul: Ancient written sources inform us about the astronomical knowledge acquired and put into practice by the Gauls. César, in the Gallic war, indicates that the druids have a thorough knowledge of the movement of the stars and that they transmit it to youth. Pliny the Elder describes the religious practice of picking mistletoe on the sixth day of the Moon. This astronomical science of the Gauls established by written sources is difficult to materialize in proposals for iconographic studies. This aporia in the state of research is accentuated by the old historiographical debate between those, in the majority, who follow the teaching of Camille Jullian by denying the interest of the insular Celtic texts considered too late and Christianized, and those, in the minority, who follow the studies of Arbois de Jubainville and which support the interest of these texts. To get out of this impasse, it is necessary to build a serial data set likely to overcome this aporia. For this, our hypothesis maintains that the druids have astronomical knowledge - attested by Caesar and other ancient authors - and that the privileged places of expression of this knowledge are the Gallic sanctuaries and their Gallo-Roman heirs through their orientations.
This postulate can also be based, in a certain way, on the identification of
orientations for the sacred sites (funerary or cult) prior to the period studied here, which have been the subject of numerous publications.

The article provides a reconstruction of Eudoxus' approach to simultaneous risings and settings in his two works dedicated to the issue: the Phaenomena and the Enoptron. This reconstruction is based on the analysis of Eudoxus' fragments transmitted by Hipparchus. These fragments are difficult and problematic, but a close analysis and a comparison with the corresponding passages in Aratus suggests a possible solution.

Global anthropologic surveys of hunter-gatherers as well as classical literature from ancient peoples widely record the teachings of their cultural stories through structurally common narratives of journeys in their sacred landscapes. These narratives, typically of a hero on his or her journey, often include elements designating time of day and seasons with those sacred landscapes. This time-factoring is sometimes described by the sun, moon and stars, as well as illustrative changes in flora and fauna. Interacting characters frequently involve anthropomorphic deities, humans, animals, and mixtures of the three. The relatively uniform structures of journey narratives worldwide appear integral to the human experience and presumably emerged before rock art.

This study examined indigenous Basque and ancient Phoenician, Greek and Roman myths in the context of historically recorded mountain faces, rocky areas, bodies of water, and other features of the natural environment that are often still revered in the region. Digital images of Iberian cave images were then visually compared with those landscapes for possible matches.

The findings of this study suggest that Upper Paleolithic artists on the Iberian Peninsula found pareidolia in their natural environment and projected those visualizations into their rock art. Real and supernatural characters, geographical features and motifs, some that may still be recognized in Iberian mythology and Mediterranean region classical literature were surfaced. This study also suggests that structural characteristics of the journey narrative with their descriptive sacred landscapes may be studied with rock art in other regions to better understand geographical uniqueness and perspectives of the original artists.

In this study, we constructed the data table of acupoint functions (i.e., acupoint indications and clinical applications) based on the previously developed information system of acupoint diagnosis and treatment in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Based on the data table of acupoint functions, between-acupoint point correlations were calculated. Acupoints with statistically significant point correlations were linked to construct the acupoint network with functional similarity. The degree centrality values of acupoints (totally 311 acupoints) showed that the acupoints Zhengying (GB17), Qinglengyuan (SJ11), Jiaji (EX-B2), etc. have the highest degree centrality values. Most of these acupoints are located on the head and neck, and their functions are universal. The acupoints Yinbai (SP1) and Zhongkui (EX-UE4) have strong specific functions and weak substitutability. The results of frequency distribution, skewness, aggregation index, coefficient of variation, entropy, and probability distributions showed that the obtained acupoint network is a scale-free complex network. Among them, the probability density function of the power law distribution is p(x)=x-6.1818 , x≥36.

http://www.iaees.org/publications/journals/nb/articles/2023-13(3)/1-Zhang-Abstract.asp

Network Biology (ISSN 2220-8879; CODEN NBEICS)

Volume 13, Number 3, 1 September 2023
http://www.iaees.org/publications/journals/nb/articles/2023-13(3)/2023-13(3).asp

Articles

Construction and analysis of acupoint network with functional similarity in Traditional Chinese Medicine
Network Biology, 2023, 13(3): 74-83
WenJun Zhang, YanHong Qi
[Abstract] [XML] [EndNote] [RefManager] [BibTex] [DOAJ] [PubMed]
[ Full PDF (278K)][Supplementary Material (449K)][Chinese Version (411K)][Animated Interactive Network]
[Email Article] [Comment/Review Article]

Graphical representation of genetic code algebra
Network Biology, 2023, 13(3): 84-97
Birinchi Kumar Boruah, Tazid Ali
[Abstract] [XML] [EndNote] [RefManager] [BibTex] [DOAJ] [PubMed]
[ Full PDF (744K)]
[Email Article] [Comment/Review Article]

This article aims to illustrate that the diamond ratio of 1.73 by Odhiambo & Mworia (2023) and Odhiambo (2023) can help identify all stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. Not only does it do that, but it can also help to accurately locate them and show some of their attributes. We are illustrating this to show that all stars and planetary objects have sizes, attributes, distances, ranges, orbits, etc. that are perfect multiples of the diamond ratio- 1.73. Thus, the Linda and Greg table can help in simplifying astrophysics.
The constant table helps identify all the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy and affirms our argument that all stars and planetary objects have diameters with whole numbers (integers). Thus there is no need to be using plus or minus so and so as they are all perfect numbers.

In our previous book version, Odhiambo & Linda (2023) we noted that we had over-explained ourselves in some parts and the Excel files were not all visible. In this sequel, the attempt is to simplify the formulae and enhance the visibility of what we intended to portray in Odhiambo & Linda (2023). In addition, we intend to provide the mathematical proof that there is a possibility that all planets might have radii and diameters that are whole numbers. For those who are unfamiliar with our previous work and the diamond ratio, the diamond ratio is 1.73. We have invented and created a table and mathematical formulae using just a computer that shows that you can identify and analyze all the objects in our solar system and even the entire Milky Way, or even the universe through sacred geometry.  This addition adds the potentiality of the possibility that all planets might have radii and diameters that are whole numbers. We have also made an attempt in this sequel to show some of the stars in our solar system. Another addition to this sequel is the distance of planets from the sun.

Double dating found in the VAT4956 to both 568 BCE and 511 BCE is now confirming the original dating for year 37 of Nebuchadnezzar in 511 BCE, which lowers the Neobabylonian period 57 years.  This corresponds to now lowering the Assyrian period 54 years by using the July 17, 709 BCE eclipse to date the Assyrian eponym instead of the June 15, 763 BCE eclipse.  The dating for Shishak's invasion, David and Solomon, and the Exodus per High Chronology vs. Low Chronology is compared in this paper.

In ancient Afrika, science, technology, engineering and mathematics were not seen as separate from or at odds with what is now referred to in English as the Humanities. Focusing on archeoastronomy of  Kmt ‘land of Black people (i.e. Ancient Egypt)’, we demonstrate that the scientific principles used to build pyramids, temples, and other edifices were rooted in and fused with Afrikan systems of deep thought and spirituality. The method adopted in this study examines alignments of structures of  Kmt ‘land of Black people’ with respect to solar and celestial phenomena in an attempt to establish systematic patterns and correlations between architectural alignments and astronomical phenomena. This method is adopted to show the relationship between structures constructed and knowledge of the oneness of humanities and sciences. Therefore, in this study, we find that the dichotomization and fragmentation of knowledge and disciplines should move towards a more holistic  Kmtyw ‘Black people, ...

At the great city of Tikal, the ancient Maya placed and oriented their ceremonial architecture and monuments in accordance with cosmological principles. Its earliest ceremonial plaza, the Mundo Perdido, is one of the oldest pre-Classic E-Groups of the Petén, the astronomical utility of which has been a topic of

This article aims to analyse the cohesive function of Latin alliteration in cases in which it serves as an element for linking together the hemistichs in the same line or hemistichs in adjacent lines. At an extra-versal level, three forms of alliterative cohesion are distinguished: 1) by enjambment (the words sounding the same at the start that belong to the same syntactical unit flow over the limits of the line); 2) by vertical correspondence (the words sounding the same at the start are placed in successive lines where they occupy the same metric position); 3) by concatenation at the end of each line and the beginning of the subsequent line (… X/X… X/X…, etc., or … X/X… Y/Y…, etc.). The alliterative cohesion by concatenation at the end of each line and the beginning of the subsequent line has been studied due to its systematic use in ancient Irish poetry, but not in Latin, where, as it is shown in this article, there is evidence of the phenomenon. The existence of this cohesive pr...

This article sets itself a goal to explore the early historical development of the traditional astrological sciences (jyotiṣaśāstra, jyotiṣavidyā) in India, tracing its relationship to the astrology developed in Mesopotamia and in the Hellenistic period by the Greeks, as well as discussing some of its amplifications in South Asia, and the direct intercourse between India and the Arabs. Some attention is paid to the transformation and re-interpretation of foreign astral and divinatory sciences in India. The primarily sources of the present study are the early Sanskrit texts (mainly those of Sphujidhvaja’s and Varāhamihira’s, and the study itself is grounded on the critical analysis of contemporary discussions carried on by D. Pingree, O. Neugebauer, P. V. Kane, A. M. Shastri, and others scholars in the field.

The history of classical astronomy tends to emphasise the development of mathematical astronomy and the origin of astronomical instrumentation. Religious and philosophical issues are generally dealt with separately. However, the practice of classical astronomy was conducted within a context in which the cosmos was permeated with soul, or psyche. This paper examines the work of Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno, and applies theory of "psychological astronomy" to the classical world, so as to provide a context and and understanding of the motive for the development of mathematical astronomy, concluding with the work of Claudius Ptolemy.